*REGGAE *

==Musical characteristics==
Reggae is either played in [[Time signature|4/4 time]] or [[Swung note|swing time]], because the symmetrical rhythmic pattern does not lend itself to other time signatures such as 3/4 time. Harmonically, the music is often very simple, and sometimes a whole song will have no more than one or two [[Chord (music)|chords]]. These simple repetitive chord structures add to reggae's sometimes hypnotic effects.  

===Drums and other percussion=== 
A standard drum kit with is generally used in reggae, but the snare drum is often tuned very high to give it a timbale-type sound. Some reggae drummers use an additional timbale or high-tuned snare to get this sound. Cross-stick technique on the snare drum is commonly used, and tom-tom drums are often incorporated into the drumbeat itself.

Reggae [[drumbeats]] fall into three main categories: ''[[One drop rhythm|One drop]]'', ''Rockers'' and ''Steppers''. With the ''One drop'', the emphasis is entirely on the third beat of the bar (usually on the snare, or as a rim shot combined with bass drum). Beat one is completely empty, which is unusual in popular music. There is some controversy about whether reggae should be counted so that this beat falls on three, or whether it should be counted half as fast, so it falls on two and four. Leroy "Horsemouth" Wallace calls the beat the "two-four combination".{{fact|date=March 2009}} Many credit [[Carlton Barrett]] of [[The Wailers (reggae)|The Wailers]] as the creator of this style, although it may actually have been invented by [[Winston Grennan]]. Hugh Malcolm and Joe Isaacs were also active Kingston studio drummers at the time. An example played by Barrett can be heard in the [[Bob Marley and the Wailers]] song "One Drop". Barrett often used an unusual [[Irrational rhythm|triplet]] [[Polyrhythm|cross-rhythm]] on the [[hi-hat]], which can be heard on many recordings by Bob Marley and the Wailers, such as "Running Away" on the ''[[Kaya (album)|Kaya]]'' album.

An emphasis on beat three is in all reggae drumbeats, but with the ''Rockers'' beat, the emphasis is also on beat one (usually on bass drum). This beat was pioneered by [[Sly and Robbie]], who later helped create the "Rub-a-Dub" sound that greatly influenced dancehall. The prototypical example of the style is found in [[Sly Dunbar]]'s drumming on "Right Time" by the Mighty Diamonds. The ''Rockers'' beat is not always straightforward, and various [[syncopation]]s are often included. An example of this is the [[Black Uhuru]] song "Sponji Reggae."

In ''Steppers'', the bass drum plays four solid beats to the bar, giving the beat an insistent drive. An example is "Exodus" by Bob Marley and the Wailers. Another common name for the ''Steppers'' beat is the "four on the floor." [[Burning Spear]]'s 1975 song "Red, Gold, and Green" (with Leroy Wallace on drums) is one of the earliest examples. The ''Steppers'' beat was adopted (at a much higher tempo) by some [[2 Tone]] [[ska]] revival bands of the late 1970s and early 1980s. 

An unusual characteristic of reggae drumming is that the drum fills often do not end with a climactic cymbal. A wide range of other percussion instrumentation is used in reggae. [[Bongo drum|Bongos]] are often used to play free, improvised patterns, with heavy use of African-style [[cross-rhythm]]s. Cowbells, [[claves]] and shakers tend to have more defined roles and a set pattern.

===Bass===
The [[bass guitar]] often plays a very dominant role in reggae, and the drum and bass is often called the ''[[riddim]]'' (rhythm). Several reggae singers have released different songs recorded over the same ''riddim''. The central role of the bass can be particularly heard in [[dub music]] — which gives an even bigger role to the drum and bass line, reducing the vocals and other instruments to peripheral roles. The bass sound in reggae is thick and heavy, and [[Equalization|equalized]] so the upper frequencies are removed and the lower frequencies emphasized. The bass line is often a simple two-bar [[riff]] that is centred around its thickest and heaviest note.

===Guitars===
The [[rhythm guitar]] in reggae usually plays the chords on beats two and four, a musical figure known as [[skank (guitar)|skank]] or the 'bang'. It has a very dampened, short and scratchy chop sound, almost like a percussion instrument. Sometimes a double chop is used when the guitar still plays the off beats, but also plays the following 8th beats on the up-stroke. An example is the intro to "[[Stir It Up]]" by The Wailers.

===Keyboards===
From the late 1960s through to the early 1980s, a piano was generally used in reggae to double the rhythm guitar's skank, playing the [[Chord (music)|chords]] in a ''[[staccato]]'' style to add body, and playing occasional extra beats, runs and riffs. The piano part was widely taken over by [[synthesizer]]s during the 1980s, although synthesizers have been used in a peripheral role since the 1970s to play incidental melodies and countermelodies. Larger bands may include either an additional keyboardist, to cover or replace [[Brass instrument|horn]] and [[melody]] lines, or the main keyboardist filling these roles on two or more keyboards.

The reggae-organ shuffle is unique to reggae. Typically, a [[Hammond organ]]-style sound is used to play chords with a choppy feel. This is known as the ''bubble''. There are specific drawbar settings used on a Hammond console to get the correct sound. This may be the most difficult reggae keyboard rhythm. The 8th beats are played with a space-left-right-left-space-left-right-left pattern.

===Horns===
Horn sections are frequently used in reggae, often playing introductions and counter-melodies. Instruments included in a typical reggae horn section include saxophone, trumpet or trombone. In more recent times, real horns are sometimes replaced in reggae by [[synthesizer]]s or recorded samples. The horn section is often arranged around the first horn, playing a simple melody or counter melody. The first horn is usually accompanied by the second horn playing the same melodic phrase in unision, one octave higher. The third horn usually plays the melody an octave and a fifth higher than the first horn. The horns are generally played fairly softly, usually resulting in a soothing sound. However, sometimes punchier, louder phrases are played for a more up-tempo and aggressive sound.

===Vocals===
The vocals in reggae are less of a defining characteristic of the genre than the instrumentation and rhythm. Almost any song can be performed in a reggae style. Vocal harmony parts are often used, either throughout the melody (as with bands such as the [[Mighty Diamonds]]), or as a counterpoint to the main vocal line (as with the backing group [[I-Threes]]). The [[United Kingdom|British]] reggae band [[Steel Pulse]] used particularly complex backing vocals. An unusual aspect of reggae singing is that many singers use ''[[tremolo]]'' (volume oscillation) rather than ''[[vibrato]]'' (pitch oscillation). The [[toasting]] vocal style is unique to reggae, originating when [[Disc jockey|DJs]] improvised along to dub tracks, and it is generally considered to be a precursor to [[hip hop music|rap]]. It differs from rap mainly in that it is generally melodic, while rap is generally more a spoken form without melodic content.

====Lyrical themes====

{{seealso|Rastafari movement#Reggae}}

Reggae is noted for its tradition of social criticism, although many reggae songs discuss lighter, more personal subjects, such as love, sex and socializing. Many early reggae bands also covered [[Motown]] or [[Atlantic records|Atlantic]] soul and [[funk]] numbers. Some reggae lyrics attempt to raise the political consciousness of the audience, such as by criticizing [[materialism]], or by informing the listener about controversial subjects such as [[Apartheid]]. Many reggae songs promote the use of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] (also known as ''herb'' or ''ganja''), considered a sacrament in the [[Rastafari movement]]. There are many artists who utilize religious themes in their music — whether it be discussing a religious topic, or simply giving praise to the Rastafari God [[Jah]]. Other common socio-political topics in reggae songs include [[black nationalism]], [[anti-racism]], anti-[[colonialism]], [[anti-capitalism]], criticism of political systems and [[Rastafarian_vocabulary#Other_words|"Babylon"]], and promotion of caring for needs of the younger generation.

=====Criticism of dancehall and ragga=====
The controversy surrounding anti-gay lyrics led to the cancellation of UK tours by Beenie Man and Sizzla. After lobbying from the Stop Murder Music coalition, the dance hall music industry agreed in 2005 to stop releasing songs that promote hatred and violence against gay people.Flick, Larry, "Gay vs. reggae: the reggae music industry makes changes in response to gay activists' protesting violently homophobic lyrics. The artists have no comment", The Advocate, April 12, 2005. "SIZZLA - REGGAE INDUSTRY TO BAN HOMOPHOBIA"] In June 2007, Beenie Man, Sizzla and Capleton signed up to the Reggae Compassionate Act — in a deal brokered with top dance hall promoters and Stop Murder Music activists — renouncing homophobia, and agreeing to "not make statements or perform songs that incite hatred or violence against anyone from any community". Five artists targeted by the anti-homophobia campaign did not sign up to the act, including Elephant Man, TOK, Bounty Killa, Vybz Kartel and Buju Banton. "Reggae stars renounce homophobia - Beenie Man, Sizzla and Capleton sign deal"

Source: Wikipedia.org